Jefferson's key arguments for independence consisted primarily of the Crown's imposition of taxes and trade restrictions onto the Colonies, but was quite clear about the issue not being the severity of the offense but much more in that the Crown had overstepped lines of mutual respect and consent, ie "No Taxation Without Representation." Where S satisfies PAP(s), S is morally responsible for E; where this is not the case then S should still be ascribed moral responsibility if the twin world condition is satisfied. Furthermore one may suggest that other nations are now, or will soon be, not entirely unaware of our present achievements, and that consequently the postponement of a demonstration may serve no useful purpose as far as the avoidance of an armaments race is concerned, and may only create additional mistrust, thus worsening rather than improving the chances of an ultimate accord on the international control of nuclear explosives. If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first demonstration, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. It is not necessary because, where alternate possibilities are not available (as in, a Frankfurt-style scenario akin to W1), and therefore S could not have done otherwise on a given occasion, one can still ascribe moral responsibility through an enforcement of the twin world condition. Describes a situation in which someone is morally responsible but is unable to do otherwise. Do you agree that under certain circumstances, R2P should override sovereignty? So, on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay, an American B-29 bomber, dropped the world's first atomic bomb over Hiroshima. Where neither is satisfied then S is not morally responsible for performing E. Frankfurt-style scenarios illustrate the condition under which PAP(s) is not satisfied. After a lengthy search, the starving castaways were thrilled to discover that the tiny island offered a plethora of .. They would point out that the catastrophic consequences of a nuclear war would affect not only the warring nations but also the entire world. In the past, science has often been able to provide also new methods of protection against new weapons of aggression it made possible, but it cannot promise such efficient protection against the destructive use of nuclear power. Question 38 options: 119137). in 1953. Question 10. We have invented the machine and it should be liberating our minds and our leisure hours. Example 1. Question 16 options: Given mutual trust and willingness on all sides to give up a certain part of their sovereign rights, by admitting international control of certain phases of national economy, the control could be exercised (alternatively or simultaneously) on two different levels. (I focused on the second version). Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. And that's the way . Black is prepared to go to considerable lengths to get his way, but he prefers to avoid showing his hand unnecessarily. We have large accumulations of poison gas, but do not use them, and recent polls have shown that public opinion in this country would disapprove of such a use even if it would accelerate the winning of the Far Eastern war. Example 1. Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. In 1906, Wendell T. Bush became associated with the Journal as co-editor. But in each scenario, S is also morally responsible for E in W1 in virtue of the fact that Ss action in W1 is congruent with Ss action in W2 (it is congruent with what S would have done in a world with alternate possibilities). Reasons reactivity and incompatibilist intuitions. All present plans for the organization of research, scientific and industrial development, and publication in the field of nucleonics are conditioned by the political and military climate in which one expects those plans to be carried out. In both (1) and (2), S is morally responsible for E in W2 because, within each scenario, S satisfies PAP(s) in W2; and, as we have seen, PAP(s) provides sufficient justification for the ascription of moral responsibility. For the ascription of moral responsibility, what is necessary is that alternate possibilities have some role to play in whatever conditions we devise to determine who is responsible and who is not, and why. So he waits until Jones is about to make up his mind what to do, and does nothing unless it is clear to him (Black is an excellent judge of such things) that Jones is going to decide to do something other than what he wants him to do. Why is this a problem for Frankfurt (and Watson?). All external conditions required to enable alternate possibilities are satisfied. Since the area of the United States is about three million square miles, it should be possible to scatter its industrial and human resources in such a way as to leave no 500 square miles important enough to serve as a target for nuclear attack. His music was heavily influenced by Liszt and Wagner, as in his Symphony in D minor, one of his most famous . Our cities today are certainly still not perfect, and likely both architects would have been disappointedbut the pair nevertheless set a foundation for discourse (and public debate) that continues to influence city planning and architecture today. We hope that the creation of the Committee by the Secretary of War to deal with all aspects of nucleonics, indicates that these implications have been recognized by the government. d) The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. Oxford: Blackwell. Ginet, C., & Palmer, D. (2010). What are they supposed to show, according to Dennett? What is necessary is that either PAP(s) or the twin world condition is satisfied. Much more favorable conditions for the eventual achievement of such an agreement could be created if nuclear bombs were first revealed to the world by a demonstration in an appropriately selected uninhabited area. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2. The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-016-9690-2, Moral Responsibility, Alternative Possibilities, and Acting on Ones Own, Individually Sufficient and Disjunctively Necessary Conditions for Moral Responsibility, The Robustness Requirement on Alternative Possibilities, Problems with Rowlands Practical Conciliationism, How (not) to construct worlds with responsibility, In Search of the Trinity: A Dilemma for Parfits Conciliatory Project, Being and holding responsible: Reconciling the disputants through a meaning-based Strawsonian account, Lueck, Bryan: Obligation and the fact of sense, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2019, ISBN: 978 1 4744 4272 5. Journal of Philosophy, 68(11), 339345. The necessity of some role for alternate possibilities does not, however, in and of itself, make necessary the clause that S (or whoever) could have done otherwise. Not to mention, the natural landscape certainly was not given priority in planning most suburban settlements. Blumenfeld, D. (1971). It could be suggested that the danger of destruction by nuclear weapons can be avoided -- at least as far as this country is concerned -- either by keeping our discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or else by developing our nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nations would think of attacking us from fear of overwhelming retaliation. The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. Neither Le Corbusier nor Frank Lloyd Wright could truly be said to have won the argument played out in the 1930s newspaper, as both got some ideas right and many wrong. Harry Frankfurt's description of the distinctly human quality of forming desires about their desires, opinions about their opinions. However, such a quantitative advantage in reserves of bottled destructive power will not make us safe from sudden attack. (b) What conflict does this decision set up between the father and mother? The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. Did Peter become the new captain\underline{\text{captain}}captain of the team? Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. "For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences.". As long as nuclear bombs remain scarce (i.e. Libertarianism and Frankfurts attack on the principle of alternative possibilities. 231248). answer choices. If the government should decide in favor of an early demonstration of nuclear weapons, it will then have the possibility of taking into account the public opinion of this country and of the other nations before deciding whether these weapons should be used against Japan. But not by verticality.. It is undoubtedly true that the discovery of flying, for example, has so far brought much more misery than enjoyment and profit to humanity. His dreams of a certain amount of land for each person have been realized to a point in American suburbs, but many of these bedroom communities lack the amenities on which Wright would have insisted. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. In the original Frankfurt paper, Jones is written as Jones4, owing the fact that at previous points in his paper, Frankfurt had discussed other versions of Jones (Jones 13). Complete the sentence in a way that shows you understand the meaning of the italicized vocabulary word. The answer is that even though the largest now known deposits of uranium ores are under the control of powers which belong to the "western" group (Canada, Belgium and British India), the old deposits in Czechoslovakia are outside this sphere. Germany, he argued, bore the main share of responsibility for the outbreak of the war. What this means is that alternate possibilities are necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility but not necessarily in the form by which one could have acted otherwise on a given occasion, as the original formulation of PAP demands. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. All images are each office/photographer mentioned. Complete the sentence by inferring information about the italicized word from its context. If he refuses then both will be killed. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. Philosophical Studies, 157, 177194. It must be stressed that if one takes the pessimistic point of view and discounts the possibility of an effective international control over nuclear weapons at the present time, then the advisability of an early use of nuclear bombs against Japan becomes even more doubtful -- quite independently of any humanitarian considerations. It must be pointed out that in this field we are in a less favorable position than nations which are now more diffusely populated and either whose industries are more scattered, or whose governments have unlimited power over the movement of population and the location of industrial plants. After such a demonstration the weapon might perhaps be used against Japan if the sanction of the United Nations (and if public opinion at home) were obtained, perhaps after a preliminary ultimatum to Japan to surrender or at least to evacuate certain regions as an alternative to their total destruction. Widerker, D. (1995). As such, S fails to satisfy both PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and should not therefore be held to account, morally. The Journal of Philosophy, 66(23), 829839. Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP). Focusing on organic growth, Wright sees it as the natural next step for humanity to remove itself from busy city life based on (what he saw as) likely future innovations in transportation. Ethics, 101(2), 258278. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument for an international agreement would likely argue that nuclear weapons pose a global threat that cannot be addressed by individual states alone. Every attempt to impede the international control agencies would have to be considered equivalent to denunciation of the agreement. At present, one could easily select in this country a hundred areas of five square miles each whose simultaneous destruction would be a staggering blow to the nation. History doesn't matter then isnt the brainwasher really responsible? I follow this with a discussion on how PAP(s) is able to withstand the challenge set by Frankfurt-style scenarios, before moving on to consider a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility. In the war to which such an armaments race is likely to lead, the United States, with its agglomeration of population and industry in comparatively few metropolitan districts, will be at a disadvantage compared to nations whose populations and industry are scattered over large areas. Therefore, in making suggestions for the postwar organization of nucleonics, a discussion of political problems cannot be avoided. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. This site is using cookies under cookie policy . If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments and prejudice the possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of such weapons. We are fully aware of the staggering difficulties involved in such a radical change in the social and economic structure of our nation. We believe that our acquaintance with the scientific elements of the situation and prolonged preoccupation with its world-wide political implications, imposes on us the obligation to offer to the Committee some suggestions as to the possible solution of these grave problems. You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. As for society and individual's relationship to it, Emerson believes that being an individual . Also, we have arguably not yet made the progress toward seamless technological integration he had hoped for. The Convention held no fewer than 60 votes before the delegates agreed upon the Electoral College as the method of selecting the president. Between 1958-1961, he served as a doctor on the staff of renowned missionary and humanitarian Albert Schweitzer in Africa. Here, Frankfurt presents the act of being able to do otherwise as a necessary condition for the ascription of moral responsibility. The power lines damagedbythestorm\underline{\text{damaged by the storm}}damagedbythestorm needed repairs. The key aspect of this solution he termed autostrades, elevated motorways 16 feet (4.8 meters) above the pedestrian domain on the ground. The principle of alternate possibilities. Stump, E. (1996). June 14, 2022 . Japanese government propaganda instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese population, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their problem- The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. He then sets out, using his now famous counter-example involving Jones and Black, to show that PAP is false. the secretaries (leaders) of the departments of the executive branch. In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. Janzen, G. (2013). Third parties help bridge the gap between state and federal legislators. Choose One possible way to introduce nuclear weapons to the world -- which may particularly appeal to those who consider nuclear bombs primarily as a secret weapon developed to help with the present war -- is to use them without warning on appropriately selected objects in Japan. They observed that a radioactive atom releases a huge burst of energy when it is split. the informal advisers who work with the president to guide and shape their agenda, such a We cannot simply say that S is morally responsible because he decided to do E and then did E (hereafter, doing E includes deciding to do E). It may be asked whether we cannot prevent the development of military nucleonics in other countries by a monopoly on the raw materials of nuclear power. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. You can specify conditions of storing and accessing cookies in your browser, 13. Thomas M. Franck Murry and Ida Becker Professor of Law Emeritus Professor Franck graduated from the University of British Columbia with a b.a. The Psychology Today interview with Jean Piaget took place in 1970 at the height of his influence. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. In conclusion, I aim to have shown that by positioning the principle of alternate possibilities as a sufficient condition for the ascription of moral responsibility, rather than as necessary, PAP(s) amounts to as useful a maxim as PAP for determining moral accountability. Fosse Dancers: The thrill of "Bob Fosse's Dancin'," a revival of the 1978 musical is, aptly, its dancers. We believe that these considerations make the use of nuclear bombs for an early unannounced attack against Japan inadvisable. A number of theorists have concerned themselves with the question of whether alternate possibilities nevertheless remain amounting to a flicker of freedom (Fischer 2002) and therefore whether Frankfurt-style counter-examples in general constitute a legitimate challenge to PAP (see Fischer 1994; Janzen 2013; Leon and Tognazzini 2010; Palmer 2011; Schnall 2001; Young 2007, by way of a small selection of papers on this). Harry Frankfurt describes the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) as follows: A person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise (Frankfurt 1969, p.829; emphasis added). The events in this chart that took place in 1933 led to which of the following in Germany. Philosophia, 35, 171180. Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. Google Scholar. In his original article, Frankfurt suggests that a twitch might be used to indicate that Jones is about to decide to do A (as opposed to no twitch for B). positions that the constituents of several representatives hold in common. A person that can only act on strongest desire at the time. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. This means that, ceteris paribus, what S would have done in W2 is what S would do in W1 in the absence of intervention, otherwise the coherence of the twin world scenario falls apart. - 103.138.151.18. Explain the "Frankfurt case" of Jones & Black argument against PAP. An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. The interview captured many facets of Piaget's remarkable career: his roots in epistemology and natural history; his interests in the underlying processes of . We therefore feel it is our duty to urge that the political problems, arising from the mastering of nuclear power, be recognized in all their gravity, and that appropriate steps be taken for their study and the preparation of necessary decisions. Then, underline twice the verb in parentheses that agrees in number with the collective noun. c) - my will is free if it conforms with my second order desires (my will is my own). At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. Given that Jones (in a typical Frankfurt-style scenario) has no alternate possibilities available to him, and therefore could not have done other than he did, how might one formulate the condition under which we would be justified in attributing moral responsibility to him? In J. Jordan, & D. Howard-Snyder (Eds. Likewise: Here, S should not be morally praised for E in W1 as we must conclude that some form of intervention has occurred thereby making Ss action in W1 incongruent with what he would have done in W2. As Engels points out, the ten-point program outlined here is very conservative and preliminary, and would have been much more developed had the Manifesto been written later. Although important tactical results undoubtedly can be achieved by a sudden introduction of nuclear weapons, we nevertheless think that the question of the use of the very first available atomic bombs in the Japanese war should be weighed very carefully, not only by military authorities, but by the highest political leadership of this country.